Shell - a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies

Shell is a global group of energy and petrochemical companies. Our headquarters are in The Hague, the Netherlands, and our Chief Executive Officer is Peter Voser. The parent company of the Shell group is Royal Dutch Shell plc, which is incorporated in England and Wales.

Populations are growing. Economies are developing. The world needs more energy than ever before.

Whether you’re doing a Bachelor’s, Master’s degree or PhD or you’ve already graduated - this is your chance to help tackle one of the defining challenges of the 21st century.

Join us on an internship, test your business skills on our Gourami Business Challenge, or attend one of our Shell Recruitment Days. Whichever path you take, you’ll get training, support and career choices to develop your potential.

Instrumentation Equipment

Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameter, pressure, flow, level or temperature to name a few and supplying a signal that is proportional to the measured parameter. The output signals are standard signal and can then be processed by other equipment to provide indication, alarms or automatic control. There are a number of standard signals; however, those most common in a CANDU plant are the 4-20 mA electronic signal and the 20-100 kPa pneumatic signal.

This section of the course is going to deal with the instrumentation equipment normal used to measure and provide signals. We will look at the measurement of five parameters: pressure, flow, level, temperature, and neutron flux.

PARCO - PAK ARAB REFINERY

PAK ARAB REFINERY LTD (PARCO) is a fully integrated energy company and is one of the largest companies in the Pakistani corporate sector with an asset base exceeding Rs. 100 billion. PARCO is a Joint Venture between Government of Pakistan and the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, incorporated as a public limited company in 1974. 60% of the share holding is by the Government of Pakistan and 40% by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi through its Abu Dhabi Petroleum Investment Company (ADPI), a subsidiary group of International Petroleum Investment Company

PARCO believes in the fact that it is the human capital of the organization that ensures growth and takes the company and moves it further to greater heights. We therefore, invest in the training and development of our employees helping them develop professional and behavioral competencies that enable them to perform on-the-job and meet their career goals. The HR department at PARCO constantly carries out Training Need Analysis whereby each individual gets an equal opportunity for training in technical, specialized and managerial areas.

PARCO Internship Program:

We offer Internships for students to support educational institutions and provide hands on experience to budding professionals in the engineering and management areas.

PARCO Training Program:

The Company also provides a two years training program to develop new talent in technical and management areas and provide career opportunities to young graduates.

Surface Energy

A surface is an inhomogeneous boundary region betweentwo adjacent phases. As shown in Figure , atoms on the surface of a phase are necessarily different than those in the bulk. In particular, they have fewer nearest neighbors than the bulk, and they may be exposed to constituents from an adjacent phase. This generally means that less energy is required to remove an atom from a surface than to remove it from the bulk. Therefore, the potential energy of surface atoms is higher than bulk atoms. In turn, work is required to move atoms from the bulk to the surface. When this is done, new surface is created, and the surface areaof the phase increases.

AN - Engineering Definitions: Updated Periodically

analogue Pertaining to data in the form of continuously variable physical quantities. Contrast with digital. A waveform is analogue if it is continuous and varies over an arbitrary range.

analogue back up An alternate method of process control by conventional analogue instrumentation in the event of a failure in the computer system.

analogue control Implementation of automatic control loops with analogue (pneumatic or electronic) equipment. analogue signal An analogue signal is a continuously variable representation of a physical quantity, property, or condition such as pressure, flow, temperature, etc.

analogue simulation The calculation of the time or frequency domain response of electrical circuits to input stimulus. It assembles and solves a set of simultaneous equations associated with circuit topology.

angle of repose A characteristic of bulk solids equal to the maximum angle with the horisontal at which an object on an inclined plane will retain its position without tending to slide; the tangent of the angle of repose equals the coefficient of static friction.

angle valve A valve design in which one port is colinear with the valve stem or actuator, and the other port is at right angles to the valve stem.

angstrom A unit of length defined as 1/643 8.4696 of the wavelength of the red line in the Cd spectrum; largely replaced by the SI unit nanometer, or 10 9 meters.

angular momentum The product of a body's moment of inertia and its angular velocity.

angular momentum flowmeter A device for determining mass flow rate in which an impeller turning at constant speed imparts angular momentum to a stream of fluid passing through the meter; a restrained turbine located just downstream of the impeller removes the angular momentum, and the reaction torque is taken as the meter output. Also called an "axial flowmeter."

angular velocity Rate of motion along a circular path, measured in terms of angle traversed per unit time.

anhydrous Describing a chemical or other solid substance whose water of crystallisation has been removed.

anisotropic Exhibiting different properties when characteristics are measured along different directions or axes.

annealing Treating metals, alloys or glass by heating and controlled slow cooling, primarily to soften them and remove residual internal stress.

annular nozzle A nozzle whose inlet opening is ring shaped rather than an open circle.

annunciator A device or group of devices that call attention to changes in process conditions that have occurred. Usually included are sequence logic circuits, labeled visual displays, audible devices, and manually operated acknowldege and reset push buttons.

antialias filter A low-pass filter designed to block frequencies greater than one-half the measuring rate.

anti cavitation trim A combination of plug and seat ring or plug and cage that by its geometry permits noncavitating operation or reduces the tendency to cavitate, thereby minimising damage to the valve parts, and the downstream piping.

anti noise trim A combination of plug and seat ring or plug and cage that by its geometry reduces the noise generated by fluid flowing through the valve.

anti reset windup Device or circuit that prevents the saturation of the integral mode of a controller that develops during times when control cannot be achieved. Helps to prevent the controlled variable from overshooting its set point when the obstacle to control is removed.

anti surge control Control by which the unstable operating mode of compressors known as "surge" is avoided.

An Overview of Laser Technology

The word laser is an acronym that stands for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation." In a fairly unsophisticated sense, a laser is nothing more than a special flashlight. Energy goes in, usually in the form of electricity, and light comes out. But the light emitted from a laser differs from that from a flashlight, and the differences are worth discussing. You might think that the biggest difference is that lasers are more power- ful than flashlights, but this conception is more often wrong than right. True, some lasers are enormously powerful, but many are much weaker than even the smallest flashlight. So power alone is not a distinguishing characteristic of laser light.
Now it'senough to say that there are three differences between light from a laser and light from a flashlight. First, the laserbeam is much narrower than a flashlight beam. Second, the white light of a flashlight beam contains many different colors of light, while the beam from a laser contains only one, pure color. Third, all the light waves in a laserbeam are aligned with each other, while the light waves from a flashlight are arranged randomly. The significance of this differ- ence will become apparent as you read through the next several chapters about the nature of light.

Lasers come in all sizes—from tiny diode lasers small enough to fit in the eye of a needle to huge military and research lasers that fill a three-story building. And different lasers can produce many different colors of light. As we explain in Chapter 2, the color of light depends on the length of its waves. Listed in Table 1.1 are some of the important commercial lasers. The "light" produced by carbon dioxide lasers and neodymium lasers can- not be seen by the human eye because it is in the infrared portion of the spectrum. Red light from a ruby or helium-neon laser, and green and blue light from an argon laser, can be seen by the human eye. But the krypton-fluoride laser's output at 248 nm is in the ultraviolet range and cannot be directly detected visually. Interestingly, few of these lasers produce even as much power as an ordinary 100-W lightbulb. What's more, lasers are not even very efficient. To produce 1W of light, most of the lasers 1 would require hundreds or thousands of watts of electricity. What makes lasers worthwhile for many applications, however, is the narrow beam they produce. Even a fraction of a watt, crammed into a supernarrow beam, can do things no lightbulb could ever do.

The ruby, yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), and glass lasers listed are solid-state lasers. The light is generated in a solid, crystalline rod that looks much like a cocktail swizzlestick. All the other lasers listed are gas lasers, which generate light in a gaseous medium like a neon sign. If there are solid- state lasers and gaseous lasers, it's logical to ask if there's such a thing as a liquid laser. The answer is yes. The most common example is the organic dye laser, in which dye dissolved in a liquid produces the laser light.

TOTAL - a global energy group

As the fifth largest publicly-traded integrated oil and gas company in the world and a major actor in the chemicals business, Total has operations in more than 130 countries on five continents with approximately 97,000 employees.
To meet growing energy needs on a long-term basis, Total’s strategy involves deploying a sustainable growth model combining the acceptability of its activities with a sustained program of profitable investments.
Our ambitions:

* preparing for future energies, i.e. innovating and pursuing our research efforts to support the development of new energies and to contribute to moderating demand;

* developing our corporate policy based on responsibility, diversity, mobility and fairness in every country in which we operate;

* meeting sustainable development challenges by placing greater value on natural resources, protecting the environment, adapting our activities to the culture of the host country and engaging in dialogue with local communities; and

* cultivating and strengthening the relationships with our shareholders by providing regular and transparent information and communication.

ADGAS - Abu Dhabi Gas Liquifaction Company

To achieve our vision through the safe and efficient production, marketing, sale and delivery of LNG, LPG and natural gases, pentane and sulphur; building on our ADGAS history, solid partnerships and human capital.
We will strive to sustain our recognized international reputation for reliability, integrity and efficiency and to continually improve HSE and business performance. We will attract, develop and retain competent and dedicated staff ”.
We aim to do this by being a world class efficient and reliable company, through adhering to the highest Health, Safety, & Environment standards and through employees who are dedicated to Quality, Professionalism and Cost Effectiveness"

ADNOC - Abu Dhabi National Oil Company

Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) is one of the world’s leading oil companies exploiting vast oil and gas reserves in the emirate of Abu Dhabi. It employs a large number of multinational, administration and technical staff.
Realizing that its people are its most important asset, ADNOC makes a significant, ongoing investment in developing a highly qualified and committed workforce. This involves not only a comprehensive program of staff training and management development, but also a focus on employee motivation, recognition and reward.
In line with the directives of His Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the President of the United Arab Emirates ADNOC endeavors to maximize the number of U.A.E Nationals in its workforce. Human Resources focuses on the development of existing U.A.E Nationals in ADNOC and its operating companies, together with ongoing efforts to recruit fresh graduated Nationals in various engineering, technical, vocational and administrative disciplines.

GPIC Bahrain

Gulf Petrochemical Industries Company was established in December 1979 as a joint petrochemicals. The joint venture is equally owned by the Government of the Kingdom of Bahrain, Saudi Basic Industries Corporation, and Petrochemical Industries Company, Kuwait.

GPIC uses natural gas which is readily available in Bahrain as a feedstock for the production of 1,200 tonnes daily of Ammonia (400,000 tonnes per annum), 1,700 tonnes daily of Urea (600,000 tonnes per annum) and 1,200 tonnes of Methanol (400,000 tonnes per annum). In addition to the production plants the GPIC Complex, which was built in Sitra on a reclaimed area of 60 hectares, comprises utilities plants, maintenance workshops, offices, stores and laboratories. The company employs 474 people of whom 80% are Bahrainis.

The company has a Board of Directors comprising representatives of the three shareholding states. The Board of Directors is chaired by HE Shaikh Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa, Advisor to His Highness the Prime Minister for Industrial and Oil Affairs and GPIC Chairman. The company's executive management is led by Mr. AbdulRahman Jawahery, General Manager.

Blast Furnace

Blast furnaces are usually tall shaft-type steel vessels, up to ten stories high, internally lined with refractory brick, and superimposed over a crucible-like hearth. The necessary charge to produce molten pig iron consists of iron-bearing materials, coke, and flux. The charge is introduced into the furnace at the top. Blasts of heated air from large blast stoves, and in most cases gaseous, liquid, or powdered fuel, are injected into the furnace through openings (tuyeres) at the bottom of the shaft just above the hearth crucible. As the hot air encounters the coke, the coke is burned along with the injected fuels, producing the necessary heat and reducing gas to remove oxygen from the ore in the reduction process. As the iron melts, it descends and accumulates in the crucible. The molten pig iron and slag are drained from the crucible through different tapping holes. The gas that exits from the top of the furnace goes through a cleaning process. The cleaned hot gas is then used in other operations of the plant, e.g. to pre-heat the blast air, while the collected dust is sent to the sintering plant for recycling back into the blast furnace. Once fired-up, a blast furnace burns continuously until the lining needs replacement (approximately 5-6 years).

AG - AI - AL - AM - Engineering Definitions: Updated Periodically

agglomeration; Any process for converting a mass of relatively fine solid material into a mass of larger lumps.

air bubbler liquid level detector; A device for indirectly measuring the level of liquid in a vessel especially a corrosive liquid, viscous liquid or liquid containing suspended solids; it consists of a standpipe open at the bottom and closed at the top, which is connected to an air supply whose pressure is maintained slightly above maximum head of liquid in the vessel; air bubbles out of the bottom of the pipe, maintaining the internal pressure equal to the head of liquid in the vessel, pressure being measured by a simple gauge or transducer.

algorithm; A prescribed set of well defined rules or processes for the solution of a problem in a finite number of steps

alias; When varying signals are sampled at equally spaced intervals, two frequencies are considered to be aliases of one another if they cannot be distinguished from each other by an analysis of their equally spaced values.

aliasing; False signals in the frequency domain caused by a measuring rate for digitising that is too slow.

alkalinity; Represents the amount of carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides and silicates or phosphates in the water and is reported as grains per gallon, or ppm, as calcium carbonate.

ambient; A surrounding or prevailing condition, especially one that is not affected by a body or process contained in it.

ambient air; 1. Air to which the sensing element is normally exposed. 2. The air that surrounds the equipment. The standard ambient air for performance calculations is air at 80°F, 60% relative humidity, and a barometric pressure of 29.921 in. Hg, giving a specific humidity of 0.013 lb of water vapour per lb of air.

ambient conditions; The conditions (pressure, temperature, etc.,) of the medium surrounding a given device or equipment.

AD - Engineering Definitions: Updated Periodically

ADA; A Pascal based, real time systems programming language developed for the United States Department of Defence.

adaptive control; A control system which adjusts its response to its inputs based on its previous experience.

adaptive gain control; A control technique which changes a feedback controller's gain based on measured process variables or controller set points.

adaptive tuning; In a control system, a way to change control parameters according to current process conditions.

adiabatic; Referring to a process which takes place without any exchange of heat between the process system and another system or its surroundings.

adsorption; The concentration of molecules of one or more specific elements or compounds at a phase boundary, usually at a solid surface bounding a liquid or gaseous medium containing the specific element or compound.

MTL - Millat Tractors Limited, Pakistan

Millat Tractors Limited (MTL) is a company for its Assembly Plants (Tractor Assembly, Engine Assembly, Industrial/Agricultural Products), Material Testing and Gauge Control Laboratory. It is Pakistan’s leading engineering concern in the automobile sector, that manufactures;

• Diesel Engines
• Diesel Generating Sets and Prime Movers
• Forklift Trucks, under license from Anhui Heli Forklift Trucks China and
• A range of Agricultural Implements.

The company is also dedicated to customize its Diesel Generating Sets and Prime Movers as per requirements of its Customers.
The company has spread its products throughout the length and breadth of the country. Today the number of MF tractors made by MTL exceeds 250,000 while the total number of tractors in the country is approximately 500,000, giving it a market share of above 50%. In other words every second tractor in Pakistan is MF. This achievement has been made possible only through the Company’s commitment to Quality, After Sale Service, Competitive Prices.

The Company looks to the future with optimism and plans to broaden its customer base. Consequently the opportunities are being explored in multi-application of engines and tractors in areas other than farming sectors. Mass Production of Generating Sets was started in 1994, while a 3-Ton Fork Lift Truck branded as Millat, based on TCM technology was launched in the year 2002. The company has established a wholly new company named Millat Industrial Products Limited to manufacture quality automotive batteries. It is mission of the company to provide total satisfaction to the customers. The employees of the company ably supported by our engineers continue to work with full vigor to further enhance products, performance and reliability.

In the point view of jobs, there are many vacancies which are provided every year to mechanical and metallurgical engineers,

Chrome Alloys (Ferrochrome)

Chromium alloys, the collective name for the various categories of ferrochrome - are processed from chromite ore, and their main application is in metallurgy where they are an essential ingredient in stainless steel manufacturing. Stainless steel production accounts for 90 percent of ferrochrome consumption. There are three main categories of ferrochrome, namely, high, medium and low carbon ferrochrome.
High carbon ferrochrome or charge chrome (3 to 8 percent carbon), is used to produce steels in which both chromium and carbon must be present. It is made by reducing chromite with coke in a submerged arc furnace with the charge being introduced from an open top. The latest trend in charge chrome production entails the adoption of plasma furnace technology, which involves the injection of pulverized chrome ore into a shaft furnace containing generators that produce high temperature ionized gases. Plasma furnaces allow friable chromite fines to be used as the raw materials, which result in lower material loss thereby increasing the ferroalloy recovery rate. Ferrochrome containing less than 3 percent medium; carbon ferrochrome, is produced by adding chromite, lime, silicon and fluorspar to molten high carbon ferrochrome in a two-stage process. Ferrochrome with an even lower content of carbon (maximum of 0,1 percent) is produced by heating high carbon ferrochrome with ground quartzite in a high vacuum with the removal of carbon as carbon monoxide. Low carbon ferrochrome is used for producing chromium steels in which the presence of carbon is detrimental.

The Atomisation Process

Atomisation is the breaking up of liquid into droplets (Fig 1). If a molten material is atomised into droplets, these normally cool rapidly to produce solid particles. Thus one could say that granulation and atomisation are conceptually identical, differing only in the size of particles produced. Granulation produces granules, which may loosely be defined as particles of the millimetre range (sometimes up to >10mm). Atomisation is normally taken, in a metallurgical context, to imply that the particles resulting are ìpowderî which can loosely be taken to mean substantially sub-millimetre range particles. In fact atomised metal powders are produced with sizes ranging from a few microns to a millimetre. Given that this spans nearly 3 orders of magnitude, the processes used to make and handle particles of the finer and coarser ends of this range are very different.

Relation of Computer Science & Metallurgy

Computer Science has vital role in Metallurgy. It helps in many metallurgy techniques’. Moreover the Metallurgy helps in many computer structural phenomena. Some important are discussed below.

Silicon Chips

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. This can be prepared by applying different metallurgical techniques. Different Silicon chips are shown in figure.

Computer Hard Disk

A computer hard disk drive reliably stores and retrieves computer data on nano scale regions of the disk. Most of the drive and its components are made of metal. So in this case the computer is depending on metallurgy. It is shown in figure.

Key Board & Mouse

Structure of the key board is mostly made of ceramic materials. Moreover cover of Monitor has a great part of ceramics. The buttons of key board have polymeric character. The ball of mouse is made cast iron, which is another blessing of metallurgy.

Control Computers

Statistical Data on Installed Control Computers; Areas of Their Use. Control computers are widely used in metallurgy, power engineering, and the chemical industry. In recent years there has been a great increase in the number of control computers installed in the metallurgical industry of capitalistic countries. Whereas in 1963, 55 control computers had been installed, at the end of 1965 they numbered 144, and at the beginning of 1967, 260. In terms of the number of control computers,metallurgy is inferior to power engineering and the chemical industry. The number of control computers in the metallurgical industry amounts to about 18% of the totai number of compu- ters installed in various branches of industry of capitalistic countries, which by the beginning of 1967 amounted to 1571 units. More than hatf of the control computers are in the USA, England is in second place, and France is in third place.

Charpy Impact Testing Machine

This tester is used to determine the energy required to break plastics, composites, and metallic materials. Anotch is made at the center of a rectangular standard test specimen, both ends are used as supports. Impact force is applied by releasing the pendulum. The energy required to break a specimen is calculatted by the angle which the specimen swings up corresponding to the residual energy. Here all calculation are done with the help of Computers which are embedded in this machine. It is shown in figure.

In Computer Modeling of Powder Metallurgy Processes

In the progressed countries Metallurgical & Mechanical engineers use computer on the practical application of Powder modeling as well as information about interesting developments in the powder technologies: fast field activated sintering, self-propagating high-temperature synthesis, HIP technology for production of large discs for high-performance gas-turbine engines and processing of functionally graded materials.

In Chemical & Extractive Metallurgy

Complex chemical equilibria calculations with the thermodata system, the thermodynamics workbench. Computations using MTDATA of metal-matte-slag-gas equilibria, energy requirements for the hydrogen gas production from decomposition to heated asbestos tailings. Heat and mass transfer simulations on a personal computer. Heat transfer tutor and caster for educational computing and simulation. Modelling made easy: the synthetic intelligence (SI) approach. Expert systems as a process operator assistance tool. The use of computer models in an integrated approach to plant design, process optimization and process control.

In Foundry Industry

Now a days foundry men are using different computer software to improve the properties of their product.

Determination Of Clay Contents In The Given Sand Sample Using Sand Washer

Sand testing washer is used for measuring the clay contents and sand contents of general moulding sand in percentage, and comprises 1 /20HP single phase motor (steplessly adjustable between 600 and 3,000 rpm), vane shaft, beaker, siphon and timer.

Equipment:

1. Sand Testing washer
2. Timer

Chemicals / Materials:

Testing sand, Caustic soda solution

Operating Procedure:

1. Dry the sand for one hour at 105 ± 5oC.
2. Then allow it to stand in a desiccator for cooling, and weigh 50 g of sample accurately , put into the beaker, add 475cc of 20 to 25oC distilled water and 25cc of caustic soda solution (with 30 g of caustic soda dissolved into 970 cc of water).
3. Place the motor slowly on the beaker, and stir sufficiently for about 10 minutes.
4. Take out the beaker, and pour water in it, to wash the sand adhering to the wall into the beaker, up to about 15 cm depth in total.
5. Stir it sufficiently, and allow it to stand for about 10 minutes and allow supernatant water to flow through siphon bringing the level down to 2.5 cm.
6. Add 20 to 25oC distilled water again up to 15 cm depth, and stir sufficiently, and allow it to stand for about 10 minutes.
7. Again allow the supernatant water to flow out by the siphon until the height from the bottom becomes 2.5 cm. Then, add water again up to 15 cm depth, stir it sufficiently and allow it to stand for 5-10 minutes.
8. Repeat the same operation until the discharged water becomes clear.
9. Filter the sand particles remaining in the beaker, using about 9 cm filter paper in a Buchner funnel, and move the sand along with filter paper to a large wash glass.
10. Dry it perfectly at 105 ± 5oC and cool in a desiccator.
11. Double the difference between the weight of washed sand particles and the weight of original sample is the percent of clay content.
    

Remarks:

• If the distilled water is not available, ordinary water can be used.
• It is desirable that test should be conducted twice or more for the same sample, and that the mathematical mean value of test results within deviation ±5 % should be taken as the result of the test.
• The motor speed can be adjusted steplessly between 600 and 3,000 rpm, and therefore when it is desired to shorten the time or to change stirring eddy current, the speed can be adjusted arbitrarily (standard speed is 1,500 rpm for 50 Hz, and 1,800 rpm for 60 Hz).

Determination Of Permeability Of Given Sand Sample Using Permeability Tester

Permeability is that property which allows gas and moisture to pass through the moulding sand. It is determined by measuring the rate of flow of air through A.F.S. standard rammed specimen under a standard pressure. The volume of air in cm3 / min. passing through a specimen of length 1 cm. and cross sectional area of 1 cm2 under a pressure difference of 1 cm. water gauge is called Permeability Number.

1. Permeability Number:

The volume of air passing through a sand specimen 1 sq. cm area and 1 cm. in height at a pressure of 1 gram per square centimeter in 1 min. is called the Permeability Number and is computed by the formula:

P = (v x h) / (p x a x t)

Where,

P = Permeability Number
v = Volume of air passing through the specimen (cubic centimeter or in mil)
h = Height of specimen (centimeters)
p = Pressure difference between upper and lower surfaces of test specimen (in centimeter of water column)
a = Cross-sectional area of specimen (square centimeter)
t = time (minutes)

1. Permeability Meter:

The body of the Permeability Meter is an aluminum casting of a water tank and base. Inside water tank floats a balanced air drum carefully weighed and designed to maintain constant pressure of 10 cm during its fall.
The outlet from the air drum is connected to a centre post in the base via three way air valve. The centre post incorporates a pipe for measuring pressure, which is connected to the water manometer and an expandable “O” ring for sealing the specimen tube. It also accommodates the orifices.

Equipment:

• Sand Permeability Tester
• Testing sand specimen

1. Standard Permeability Test:
   

1. Test Procedure:

1. Check that the open orifice is in the position in the centre
2. Prepare an A.F.S. standard specimen of sand. Before stripping from tube place in position on the centre post and seal by rotating the knurled ring anti-clockwise.
3. Check water level in the tank. Turn air valve to “NENT” and slowly raise drum until it is out of water.
4. Allow the air drum to descend by turning the air valve to a position midway between “CLOSED” and “VENT”.
5. Time the descend of the air drum between zero and 2000 ml mark with a stop watch and record the pressure indicated on the manometer during the descend of the drum.
6. Calculate the permeability by applying the given formula.

1. Dry Permeability Test:

The permeability of a moulded mass of sand dried at 105oC to 110oC is called Dry Permeabilty. It is used for dried, baked or cured sand specimens.

1. Test Procedure:
   

• Place split specimen tube on pedestal, and insert steel ring in bottom of tube.
• Tighten clamp on split specimen tube.
• Weigh out sufficient sand to produce a test specimen of standard dimensions, and ram according to standard procedure.
• Release clamp on specimen container, remove the tube, and place specimen on drier. The clamp is then release and the core is stripped.
• Place core in an oven and dry at 105oC to 110oC for one hour or until dry.
• Remove the specimen from oven, and place it in a desiccator to cool.
• When cool, place specimen in a core permeability tube. Clamp the specimen firmly in position.
  
• Place permeability tube in position in permeability meter, and determine permeability in usual way, as described above.

Universal Sand Strength Testing Machine

The Universal Sand Strength Testing Machine consists of three major parts; frame, pendulum weight and pusher arm. The pusher arm is motivated by means of a small handwheel, which, through a gearbox, rotates a pinion engaged in a rack on the quadrant. The pendulum weight swings on a ball bearing and can be moved by the pusher arm, via test specimen, from a vertical position, with a consequent increase of a load on the test specimen. A magnetic bar is moved up the calibrated scale by the pendulum weight and indicates the point at which the specimen collapses. The machine can be calibrated in g / cm3.

Determination Of Green & Dry Strength Of Different Sand Mixtures

Strength or bond strength is the property of sand whereby it offers resistance to deformation and enables the sand to hold together under pressure. Green strength is referred to the strength of moist or tempered sand whereas dry strength is strength of sand dried at 110oC. The green strength of sand is usually lower than its dry strength. Bond in moulding sand is due to the presence of binders such as clay, core gum, molasses, linseed oil etc.

Green Compression Strength:

Test Procedure:

• Place the compression heads in the lower position as shown in the figure.
• Raise the weight arm slightly and insert an A.F.S. standard 50 mm X 50 mm test specimen between the compression heads so that the face that was uppermost in the ramming operation is facing the right-hand compression head. Care should be taken not to damage the specimen.
• Ensure that the magnetic rider is resting against the pusher plate and that there is at least 6mm clearance between the rubber bumper and the lug on the weight arm. If this clearance is insufficient, it means that the specimen is smaller than the permitted tolerance and should be discarded.
• Apply a load to the test specimen by turning the hand wheel at uniform rate (approximately 30 g / cm3 / sec) until the specimen collapses.
• Record the reading shown on the lower edge of the magnetic rider, reading the scale designated “Green Compression Strength”.
• Return the weight to zero by gently reversing the rotation of the hand wheel. Remove the sand from the compression heads.

Green Shear Strength:

Test Procedure:

• Place the shear test heads in the lower position in the machine, with the head having the half round holder attached to it in the pusher arm.
• Raise the weight arm slightly and insert an A.F.S. standard 50 mm X 50 mm test specimens between the heads.
• Ensure that the magnetic rider is resting against the pusher arm and that there is 6mm clearance between the rubber bumper and lug on the weight arm.
• Apply the load uniformly until the specimen shears.
• Read the lower edge of the magnetic rider on the scale designated “Green Shear Strength”.
• Return the weight to zero by reversing the rotation of the hand wheel. Remove the sand from the shear heads.

Dry Compression Strength:

Test Procedure:

• Place the compression heads in the top position of the machine. This position increases the load applied by factor of 5.
• Prepare A.F.S. standard 50 mm X 50 mm test specimen in the usual way and dry in an oven at 110oC for few hours.
• When cool, place in position between test heads and adjust clearance between rubber bumper and the lug on weight arm to approximately 13 mm using the adjusting screws in the pusher arm.
• Apply the load as for “Dry Compression” until the specimen collapses.
• Red the scale designated “Dry Compression Strength” according to the test heads being used.
• Return the weight to zero by reversing the rotation of the hand wheel. Remove the sand from the compression heads.

Dry Shear Strength:

Test Procedure:

• Place the shear heads in the top position of the machine. This position increases the load applied by factor of 5.
• Prepare A.F.S. standard 50 mm X 50 mm. test specimen in the usual way and dry in an oven at 110oC for few hours.
• When cool, place in position between test heads and adjust clearance between rubber bumper and the lug on weight arm to approximately 13 mm using the adjusting screws in the pusher arm.
• Apply the load as for “Dry Shear” until the specimen shears.
• Red the scale designated “Dry Shear Strength” according to the test heads being used.
• Return the weight to zero by reversing the rotation of the hand wheel. Remove the sand from the shear heads.

Making Sand Samples Using Sand Rammer

The sand rammer is a machine for preparing specimens for testing of the permeability and strength of moulding sand and is comprised mainly of a base, ram, tamping bar and lever.

The machine is so constructed that the ram is brought up by the crank and is then caused to drop to strike and drive down the tamping bar at the lower end of which is fixed a tamping plate which slides into a sand tube to press the sand tube into a certain size with certain energy.

Equipment:

1. Sand Rammer
2. Sand tube
3. Sand stripping bar

Chemicals / Materials:

Testing sand

Operating Procedure:

1. Preparation of Strength Test Specimen:
1. Set the sand tube in the tube rest for about 15 mm, and holding it by hand, introduce about 140 g to 175 g of the test sand gently so that the sand surface is level.
2. Next, pull the handle toward you to force the tamping bar up, then load the sand tube having the sand charged together with the rest on the base, and introduce the ramming head quietly into the sand tube until it is held by the sand surface.
3. Then, turning the lever forward, perform ramming three times.
4. With the sand thus rammed, if the pointer provided on the tamping bar stops within the tolerable range on the scale, the compacted sand is usable as a test specimen of a standard size (height 50 mm).
5. The tolerances ±1 mm graduated above and below the base line, and if the pointer does not remain within the tolerable range, such specimen is not usable as a test specimen, so that it should be discarded.
6. Then, adjusting the quantity of sand to be introduced in the sand tube properly, repeat the foregoing procedure.
7. When a specimen of standard size is obtained, raise the ramming plate, remove the sand tube and set it over the sand stripping bar to withdraw the standard sand specimen from the sand tube.

1. Preparation of Permeability Test Specimen:


1. Set the sand tube on the rest, and prepare the test specimen, as in the case of the strength test specimen, with about 140 g to 175 g of the test sand fed.
2. The specimen height shall comply with the standard 50 mm (tolerance ±1 mm).
3. In the case of testing the permeability of green sand, the test specimen should not be withdrawn from the sand tube but be applied to the permeability tester immediately together with the sand tube.

Caution:

The machine is subjected to considerable impact in use so that it should be installed in the rigid concrete base preferably in a height of 500-600 mm.

Making Permanent Mold Castings

In permanent mold casting method, molten metal is poured into metal molds and around metal cores. The metal molds are coated with a mold surface coating and preheated before being filled with molten metal. A pre-measured amount of molten metal is poured into the permanent mold under gravity.
Permanent molds are made in two halves; they may be designed with vertical parting line or with horizontal line as in ordinary sand molding. The mold material is usually a good grade of cast iron, although die steel, graphite, copper, and aluminum are also being used. Cores for permanent molds can be sand, plaster, collapsible metal cores, or simply heavily tapered metal cores which are removed while the casting is still hot.
Permanent mold castings have been made commercially of tin, zinc, lead, aluminum, magnesium, copper, and cast iron, and from their alloys. Higher production rates are obtained in permanent mold castings than sand casting.

Equipment:

1. Permanent Metal Mold
2. Brushes

Chemicals / Materials:

Aluminum scrap, refractory wash

Procedure:

• Clean the mold by brushing or blasting with warm air.
• Maintain it at proper casting temperature by a gas or oil flame.
• Paint or spray the mold surface with a thin refractory wash or blacken it by depositing carbon from a reducing oil or gas flame.
• Insert cores, if necessary and close the mold by hand or automatic action if available.
• Pour the molten aluminum metal from the crucible into permanent mold.
• Allow the sufficient time for the casting to solidify.
• Then, open the metal mold and eject the casting from it automatically or by hand.
• Finally, machine the casting to get the finished shape.

Making Cores Of Sand Casting Process

Cores are used to obtain the internal configurations of different castings. Cores are usually made of synthetic sand, although clean, natural sand containing only 1 to 2 % clay can be used. Cores may also be made of green sand used in the dried condition. Most frequently, however, they are bonded with organic agent such as linseed oil, cereals, molasses etc may be added to make the raw mixture stronger. The basic advantage of organic core binders (as compared to clays) is that they break down under the heat of metal (have collapsibility) and so can be easily removed from the casting as shakeout.

Equipment:

1. Core Box
2. Rammer
3. Chemicals / Materials:

Chemicals / Materials:

Moulding Sand (mixture of sand & molasses).

Procedure:

• Take a core box and fill it completely with molding sand (mixture of sand & molasses).
• Insert iron wires for reinforcement.
• Then ram the molding sand present in the core box with the help of a rammer.
• Continue adding and ramming the moulding sand until the sand is densely and fully packed in the core box.
• Then, open the core box and carefully remove the core from it.
• Bake this core in an oven at about 230oC to develop the strength in core and to remove gases.
• After baking, wash the core with refractory slurry to improve the casting surface finish.

Making sand Castings using Different patterns

The casting process is the oldest, most versatile, and the most flexible process for forming metals. Basically, it consists of introducing molten metal into a cavity or mold of desired form and allowing the metal to solidify. There is practically no limit to the size, shape, and alloy of the casting that may be made. Castings regularly produced range from tiny dental inlay of rare metals to complicated steel castings exceeding 2000 ton in weight. Almost any article may be cast with proper technique.

In sand casting, a mold is produced by shaping a suitable refractory material to form a cavity of desired shape, such that a liquid metal can be introduced into this cavity. The mold cavity has to retain its shape until the molten metal has solidified and the casting is separated from the mold.
There are also some other types of casting processes: e.g. permanent mold casting, die casting, plaster casting, investment casting, squeeze / semi solid casting, slush casting, shot casting etc.

Equipment:

1. Sand Molds with different shapes of cavities
2. Crucible

Chemicals / Materials:

Molding Sand, Aluminum metal

Procedure:

• First of all, prepare sand for sand molding according to the procedure described in Experiment # 1.
• Then, prepare a sand mold according to the procedure described in Experiment # 2.
• After the preparation of sand mold, melt aluminum metal or any available aluminum alloy in a pit furnace.
• When the metal is liquid enough to pour into the mold, put off the fire and hold the crucible with the help of a holder.
• Place some weight on the mold and pour the molten metal into the mold through the spruce or pouring basin.
• Continue pouring until the molten metal comes out of risers of the mold.
• Allow the metal to solidify in the sand mold for some time.
• When the metal in the mold is solidified, break the sand mold with the help of breakers to remove the required metal casting.
• Finally, the casting is machined to get the finished shape.

Melting Aluminum And Its Alloys

Manufacture of castings is essentially a matter of heat transfer in one or another form. Heat is first added to the cold, solid metal (scrap or ingot) for melting and for superheating the molten metal until it is fluid enough to pour into a mold. Various types of furnaces are used for this purpose e.g. crucible furnace, electrical furnaces, cupola furnace etc. Heat is then extracted from the metal by mold to re-form it into a solid, cold body of desirable size and shape.

The furnace which is most commonly used for melting non-ferrous metals and alloys is crucible furnace.

Equipment:

1. Pit Furnace
2. Crucible

Chemicals / Materials:

Aluminum scrap, Flux and degasser

Procedure:

• Take required amount of aluminum scrap and put it into the pit furnace crucible.
• Switch on the blower and turn on the gas valve.
• Then, put on the fire so that metal in the crucible can be melted.
• Continue supplying heat to the metal until it is completely liquefied and fluid enough to pour into a mold.

Making Sand Molds Using Different Patterns

Silica sand (SiO2) is used more commonly for making castings than any other molding materials. It is relatively cheap, and has sufficiently refractoriness even for steel foundry use. A suitable bonding agent (clay or molasses) is mixed with the sand; mixture is moistened with water to develop strength and plasticity and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The resulting sand mixture is easily prepared and molded around various shapes to give satisfactory casting of almost any metal.

The fundamentals of mold making are simple, but expert hand molding requires much skill and practice. Production line work is done today by machine molding, in which nearly all operations are automatic. The skilled molder is replaced by a relatively untrained machine operator.

Equipment:

1. Flask or Molding Box
2. Rammer
3. Riddle
4. Wooden or Steel Board
5. Different Patterns
6. Draw spikes

Chemicals / Materials:

Molding Sand, Graphite Powder, Molasses

Procedure:

• First of all place the wooden or steel board (bottom board) on the table or floor.
• Place the drag-half of the flask on the bottom board and position drag-half of the pattern in it.
• Sprinkle some amount of graphite powder in the flask and over the pattern to produce smooth surface finish. It also acts as a parting agent.
• Now, fill the drag-half of the flask with molding sand keeping the pattern in position.
• Ram the molding sand in the flask with the help of a rammer.
• Continue adding and ramming the sand until it is densely packed in the flask.
• When the flask is properly rammed, then use a metal strip to remove excess sand from the upper surface.
• Now, place a second flat board upside down on the mold and flask, clamp it and over turn the whole.
• Remove the first bottom board which is now on top and sprinkle some amount of graphite powder (parting powder) on the surface of mold to finish it.
• Now, position the cope-half of the flask over drag and also the cope-half of the pattern.
• Place two rods vertically on either sides of the pattern, at a suitable distance, to produce pouring basin and risering system.
• Fill the cope-half with molding sand keeping the pattern and rods in position.
• Ram the molding sand in the flask with the help of a rammer.
• Continue adding and ramming the sand until it is densely packed in the cope.
• When the flask is properly rammed, then use a metal strip to remove excess sand.
• Now, remove the rods from the cope-half and as a result holes for spruce and riser will be produced.
• Separate cope and drag portions of the flasks from each other, use draw spikes to remove the pattern from the mold.
• Cut the in-gates in the mold and again sprinkle some amount or graphite powder over the surface of mold to finally finish it.
• If necessary, position the cores in the cavity of the mold and close the mold again by placing cope again atop the drag.
• The mold is ready for pouring.

Practice For Preparation of Molding Sand Mixtures

Silica sand (SiO2) is used more frequently for making castings than any other moulding materials. It is relatively cheap, and has sufficiently refractoriness even for steel foundry use. A suitable bonding agent (clay or molasses) is mixed with the sand; mixture is moistened with water to develop strength and plasticity and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. A definite mulling action is always required for thorough mixing, in which sand grains, bonding agent, and water are rubbed intimately together. Different types of sand mullers are used to serve this purpose.

Equipment:

• Sand Muller


• Hot Tray


• Shovel

Chemicals / Materials:

Sand, Molasses and Water.

Procedure:

1. Take silica sand and stack it over hot tray with the help of a shovel.


2. Put on the fire and heat the sand for sometime.


3. When it is sufficiently hot, throw it into the pan of muller with a shovel.


4. Then add some amount of molasses in the sand and switch on the muller. The wheels rotation inside the muller will thoroughly mix up sand and molasses.


5. Continue adding and mixing molasses in the sand until sufficient strength and plasticity is developed in the sand-molasses mixture.

Metallurgical Microscope

Because of its ability to study objects with highly polished surfaces like metals, a metallurgical microscope is different from other microscopes. Due to the various possible applications of a metallurgical microscope, buying one would give you a multipurpose investment. The many metallurgical microscopes will allow them to explore different fields and broaden their knowledge with just one tool. The study of metals and alloys and more specifically metallography, the microscopic examination of metals and alloys, a metallurgical microscope, especially a high end one, is generally equipped to provide great help in other fields of materials science as well. Metallography is the study of metal and alloys. Metallurgical microscope can help in knowing objects through its physical structure and properties. Metallography, in this art and science field, metal surfaces are prepared for microscopic analyses either by etching, polishing, or grinding the object in order to show its microstructure. Identifying properties and processing conditions of a metal or alloy sample with a metallographic analysis is what an expert in metallography can do.
What can we do with microscope? Featues are given below;
* Upright Trinocular Professional Metallurgical - Metallographic Microscope!
* Ideal for Identification and Analysis of the Structure of Different Metals and Alloys.
* Upright Design (Objectives Above the Stage).
* Great for Detailed Inspection of a Metallic Surface.
* Perfect for Metallurgical Laboratories, Foundries, Silicon Wafer Inspection, Industrial Applications, and Quality Control Labs!
* Excellent Bright and Clear Images through High Quality Optics.
* Great for Viewing Opaque Surfaces - Light Travels Through the Objective and Reflects off Surface of Object and Back Into Objective!
* No Worries about how to get Light to the Specimen's Surface!
* Epi-Illumination Microscopy System: Light From Rear Housing goes through the Horizontal Shaft, Reflects Down through Objective to the Specimen, Reflects off the Specimen, and Back into the Objective and then to the Eyepieces. Also known as Reflected Light Microscopy.
* Includes Polarizer and Analyzer! View your Metallic Specimens under Cross Polarization Conditions using Epi-Illumination!

ALBA - Aluminium Bahrain

Aluminium Bahrain has been consistently ranked as one of the largest aluminium smelters in the world and is known for its technological strength and innovative policies.It has consistently maintained a high track record for safety and continues to enforce strict environmental guidelines and has surpassed production targets set for the year. It supports numerous community oriented programmes and social activities that have underlined its status as one of Bahrain's leading industrial organisations that remains fully committed to its corporate social responsibility

Training:

The company has a dedicated Training Centre and provides a range of managerial, technical and general development courses throughout the year - facilitating training each year for around 70% of its workforce. Competency-based assessment and training forms the backbone for the development and subsequent promotion of operational employees and a long-standing commitment to the training of nationals means the company has a solid Bahrainization level and a strong succession plan to localise the work force.

The training department has a number of training programs and packages for the newly graduated students with technical background to join the company in a two-years long vocational training program aiming to provide the students with adequate technical knowledge and hands-on experience enabling them to replace the expatriate work force in various technical fields in the company. The Training department also liaises with various higher educational establishments and universities to engage selected students to join the company during the summer months as part of their academic requirement. The department is currently involved with His Highness the Crown Prince's leadership program aimed to prepare the high academic achievers with the necessary skills to assume leadership roles and responsibilities.

What ALBA offers?

Services to its employees include a comprehensive Medical Centre, subsidised canteens, an attractive savings benefit scheme, a well-equipped sports and leisure club, a unique housing scheme, transportation to work for all non-supervisory employees and a number of reward schemes including the Good Suggestion Scheme, Attendance Award and Gold Card scheme.

Families of employees are also supported through annual programmes including granting of scholarships, the distribution of comprehensive school kits to children aged 6-15, a work experience programme and a Summer Camp which enables employees' children to participate in a number of sports and leisure activities.

Alba also plays a key role in the community and economy of Bahrain, funding and supporting major events, exhibitions and sporting competitions each year.

Mass Transport Properties of Materials

We bring the analogies of momentum, heat, and mass transfer in materials to a close with a description of mass transport, often called mass diffusion,orsimply diffusion. Many of the phenomena we have already studied depend upon diffusion. For example, most phase transformations (excluding “diffusion-less” transformations such as martensitic) rely on the movement of atoms relative to one another. Corrosion can- not occur unless there is a movement of atoms or ions to a surface that allows the appropriate chemical reactions to take place. And, as we will see in Chapter 7, some processing methods such as chemical vapor deposition are wholly dependent upon the transport of chemical reactants to the location where reaction conditions allow products to form. This is why the term “diffusion-controlled” is often used to describe the kinetics of a process—the reaction is rapid relative to the time it takes to transport reactants to and/or products from the reaction site. For these reasons, it is important to study diffusion in materials, even though the driving forces are complex and the mass transport properties of a material are highly dependent upon the diffusing species of interest. Unlike momentum and heat transport, the entity being transported is not the same in all diffusion situations. We must describe not only the material in which the transport is taking place, but also what is being transported (see Appendix 6, for example). The movement of hydrogen gas through metals, for example, is much different from the movement of liquid water through metals. As a result, the systems we will address will be highly specific and not at all general. Nonetheless, we can begin as in the previous sections of this chapter, with a description of mass transport properties from a fundamental viewpoint, and extend this to liquids and solids, with the recognition that as systems become more complex, theoretical predictions must give way to empiricisms and correlations.

An over view of Industrial management and quality control

Industrial management! What is industrial management? “Management is the art of getting things done through and with people”. Really it is an art and to get this skill and to apply it into industry we must have to well equip with the terminologies and the skill of management. To get these skills we must know about the jobs of manager and complete management hierarchy of an institute. No doubt the lab session of Industrial management and quality control provided us these skills by presentation session. Some one gave presentation on the management of WAPDA, some one on POF, someone on Siemens, bank of Punjab, PCSIR, ISO9000, Gourmet and someone on DESCON. Along with these presentation, the presentations like “Risk management”, “Leadership Qualities”, ”Total quality control” and “management skills”, are also presented.
One of good thing of this presentation session was that,” sir implements and orders to submit minimum 10 reports on 10 different presentations”. Because of this act students listened to presentation carefully.
Ultimately consequence comes “A person, who listens, will get something”
But presentation session span was too much long it extends almost for 9 weeks.
After that we were given a case study on” Casting machine basic design for Continuous billet casting of aluminum”. In that case study we learn basic design of a casting machine, its problems, its operation, its datums and tolerances, limitations of design feature, importance of design and many other engineering terms. We also draw sketch of machine along with report submission. We were provided with time for discussion on the problems statement of design of that machine, which elaborate our mind skills to think and to grasp a problem and teaches us how to solve it.
Then a report was given on the topic “Market analysis”. This was not only report but a report after market analysis. Student went to market, analyze different products of their choice and find out Its SWOT analysis, its strategy to achieve success and future goals. After that some students also gave presentation on their market analysis like Restaurants and coca cola. This report creates ability to talk with manner and sense of managing thing.
Then a discussion session start and we were given one of the essential and worldly recognized topic “Global Financial Crises” we were given time to discuss on it and to find out its causes and remedies, so that in future we may able to work for our industry.
In last we were given some management questions to answer but no submission imposition. These questions were good but not answered because relaxation given.
Subject name is “Industrial management and quality control” but I think name should be “Industrial management” because no focus on quality control. No doubt management is important but what we think Quality control is to be studied with the reference of management? Management is the only parameter to control quality? What about process? What about Engineering?

AB - Engineering Definitions: Updated Periodically

Engineering Definition Starting With "AB"
absolute encoder: An electronic or electromechanical device which produces a unique digital output (in coded form) for each value of an analogue or digital input; in an absolute position encoder, for instance, the position following any incremental movement can be determined directly, without reference to the starting position.

absolute humidity: The weight of water vapour in a gas-water vapour mixture per unit volume of space occupied.

absolute measurement; A measured value expressed in terms of fundamental standards of distance, mass and time.

absolute pressure; The pressure measured relative to zero pressure (vacuum).

absolute stability; A linear system is absolutely stable if there exists a limiting value of the Open loop gain such that the system is stable for all lower values of that gain and unstable for all higher values.

absolute value error; The magnitude of the error disregarding the algebraic sign or, if a vector error, disregarding its direction.

absolute viscosity; A measure of the internal shear properties of fluids expressed as the tangential force per unit area at either of two horizontal planes separated by one unit thickness of a given fluid, one of the planes being fixed and the other moving with unit velocity.

absorbance; An optical property expressed as log (SIT), where T is the transmittance.

absorptance; The fraction of the incident light absorbed.

absorption-emission pyrometer; An instrument for determining gas temperature by measuring the radiation emitted by a calibrated reference source both before and after the radiation passes through the gas, where it is partly absorbed.

absolute pressure; The pressure measured relative to zero pressure (vacuum).

absorption tower; A vertical tube in which a gas rising through a falling stream of liquid droplets is partially absorbed by the liquid.

AC - Engineering Definitions: Updated Periodically

Engineering Definition Starting With "AC"
accelerometer; A transducer used to measure linear or angular acceleration.

access time; The interval between a request for stored information and the delivery of the information; often used as a reference to the speed of memory.

accuracy; The ratio of the error to the full-scale output or the ratio of the error to the output, as specified, expressed in percent.

acidity; Represents the amount of free carbon dioxide mineral acids and salts which hydrolise to give hydrogen ions in water. pH is the measure of hydrogen ions concentration.

ACK; Transmission control character transmitted by a receiving device as an affirmative response to a sending device.

acoustical ohm; The unit of measure for acoustic resistance, reactance or impedance; it equals unity when a

sound; pressure of one microbar produces a volume velocity of one cubic centimetre per second.

acoustic compliance; The reciprocal of acoustic stiffness.

acoustic dispersion; Separation of a complex sound wave into its various frequency components, usually due to variation of wave velocity in the medium with sound frequency; usually expressed in terms of the rate of change of velocity with frequency.

acoustic impedance; The complex quotient obtained by dividing sound pressure on a surface by the flux through the surface.

acoustic inertance A property related to the kinetic energy of a sound medium which equals Za/2 7rf, where Za is the acoustic reactance and f is sound frequency; the usual units of measure are g/cm4. Also known as "acoustic mass."

acoustic radiometer; An instrument that measures sound intensity by determining unidirectional steady state pressure when the sound wave is reflected or absorbed at a boundary.

acoustic sensitivity; The output of a transducer (not due to rigid body motion) in response to a specified

acoustical environment; This is sometimes expressed as the acceleration in g rms sufficient to produce the same output as induced by a specified sound pressure level spectrum having an overall value of 140 dB referred to 0.0002 dyne per sq cm rms.

acoustic stiffness; A property related to the potential energy of a medium or its boundaries which equals, where Za is the acoustic reactance and is sound frequency; the usual units of measure are dyne/cm.

actuator; A device responsible for actuating a mechanical device such as a control valve.

actuator, double acting; An actuator in which the power supply acts both to extend and retract the actuator stem.

actuator, electric type A device which converts electrical energy into motion.

actuator, electrohydraulic type; A self-contained device which responds to an electrical signal, positioning an electrically operated hydraulic pilot valve to allow pressurised hydraulic fluid to move an actuating piston, bellows, diaphragm or fluid motor.

actuator, electromechanical type; A device which uses an electrically operated motor-driven gear train or screw to position the actuator stem. May operate in response to either analogue or digital electrical signals

actuator, fluid motor type; A fluid powered device which uses a rotary motor to the actuator stem actuator,

hydraulic type; A fluid device which converts the energy of an incompressible fluid into motion

actuator, piston type; A fluid powered device in which the fluid acts upon a movable cylindrical member, piston, to provide linear motion to the actuator stem

actuator, pneumatic; A device which converts the energy of a compressible fluid, usually air, into motion.

actuator, single acting; An actuator in which the power supply acts in only one direction. In a spring and diaphragm actuator, for example, the spring acts in a direction opposite to the diaphragm thrust.

actuator, vane type; A fluid-powered device in which the fluid acts upon a movable pivoted member, the vane, to provide rotary motion to the actuator stem.

The Heat Treatment of Steel

TEMPERING OF STEEL is a process in which previously hardened or normalized steel is usually heated to a temperature below the lower critical temperature and cooled at a suitable rate, primarily to

• Increase ductility


• Increase toughness,


• Increase the grain size of the matrix.

Steels are tempered by reheating after hardening to obtain

• Specific values of mechanical properties


• To relieve quenching stresses


• To ensure dimensional stability.

Tempering usually follows quenching from above the upper critical temperature; however, tempering is also used to relieve the stresses and reduce the hardness developed during welding and to relieve stresses induced by forming and machining.

Principal Variables

Variables associated with tempering that affect the microstructure and the mechanical properties of a tempered steel include:

· Tempering temperature

· Cooling rate from the tempering temperature

· Composition of the steel, including carbon content, alloy content, and residual elements

In a steel quenched to a microstructure consisting essentially of martensite, the iron lattice is strained by the carbon atoms producing the high hardness of quenched steels. Upon heating, the carbon atoms diffuse and react in a series of distinct steps that eventually form Fe3C or alloy carbide in a ferrite matrix of gradually decreasing stress level.

The properties of the tempered steel are primarily determined by the size, shape, composition, and distribution of the carbides that form, with a relatively minor contribution from solid-solution hardening of the ferrite. These changes in microstructure usually

• Decrease hardness,


• Decrease tensile strength,


• Decrease yield strength


• Increase ductility


• Increase toughness.

Under certain conditions, hardness may remain unaffected by tempering or may even be increased as a result of it. For example, tempering a hardened steel at very low tempering temperatures may cause no change in hardness but may achieve a desired increase in yield strength. Also, those alloy steels that contain one or more of the carbide-forming elements (chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten) are capable of secondary hardening; that is, they may become somewhat harder as a result of tempering.

OBJECTIVE:

To study the effect of Tempering Time on Hardness of given steel samples

APPARATUS:

3 samples of steel of grade 1045, hack saw, grinder for rough grinding, polishing paper(0 and 2), three muffle furnaces, and bucket of water.

PROCEDURE:

• First we took a rode of 1045 steel.


• Cut it into small cylindrical samples by using hack saw.


• Then we grind specimens to remove hack saw gouges


• we perform rough polishing by using 0 and 2 number paper.


• We place all samples into muffle furnace and heat it at 880C


• 30 minute soaking time is given and then quenched into water.


• Furnaces is operating at 600 c.


• We provide 45 min to get austenetizing temperature.


• We place samples in furnace to temper and provide soaking time 90,180,270 and 360min.


• Then after that we cool them slowly in air.


• Again polish them and check their hardness.

TEMPERING TIME

The diffusion of carbon and alloying elements necessary for the formation of carbides is temperature and time dependent. The changes in hardness are approximately linear over a large portion of the time range when the time is presented on a logarithmic scale.

Rapid changes in room-temperature hardness occur at the start of tempering in times less than 10 s. Less rapid, but still large, changes in hardness occur in times from 1 to 10 min, and smaller changes occur in times from 1 to 2 h. For consistency and less dependency on variations in time, components generally are tempered for 1 to 2 h. The levels of hardness produced by very short tempering cycles.

Ferromanganese - Manganese ferroalloys

Manganese ferroalloys consist of various grades of ferromanganese and silicomanganese used to provide a key ingredient for steelmaking . Most U.s. supply was imported in 2004. The leading foreign source of ferromanganese and silicomanganese, on a gross-weight basis, was south africa, whose exports of manganese ferroalloys to the United states exceeded those of the next four major exporting countries combined (australia, China, Norway, and romania). Manganese ferroalloys were produced domestically mainly at a plant near Marietta, oH, which was owned by France’s eramet Group. some production came from Highlanders alloys llC plant at New Haven, which resumed operations in october after having ceased production in January 2003. In 2004, eramet Group, Ukrainian producer Nikopol Ferroalloys Plant, and BHP Billiton plc of the United Kingdom accounted for a signifcant portion of the world’s production of manganese ferroalloys. In addition to its U.s. plant, eramet Group controlled plants in China, France, Italy, and Norway, while BHP Billiton owned plants in australia and south africa. China continued to be by far the leading producer of manganese ferroalloys with an output greater than that of the next major producers, south africa and Ukraine.

Ferroalloys - Alloys of Iron

Ferroalloys, alloys of iron, are used to add one or more chemical elements into molten metal, usually during steelmaking. They impart distinctive qualities to steel and cast iron or serve important functions during production. Manganese is essential to the production of virtually all steels and is important to the production of cast iron. Manganese neutralizes the harmful effect of sulfur and is an important alloying element. silicon’s primary alloying use is to deoxidize steel, but it is also an alloying element in cast iron. Boron, chromium, cobalt, columbium (niobium), copper, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, the rare-earth elements, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, and zirconium are among the other elements contributing to the character of the various alloy steels and cast irons (Brown and Murphy, 985, p. 265). The leading fve ferroalloy-producing countries in 2004, in decreasing order of production, were China, south africa, Ukraine, russia, and Kazakhstan, with russia moving ahead of Kazakhstan compared with 2003. The ferroalloy industry is closely associated with the iron and steel industry, the leading consumer of its products. World production of bulk ferroalloys—chromium, manganese, and silicon—was estimated to be 23.0 million metric tons (Mt) in 2004, a 4% increase compared with the revised fgure for 2003. U.s. bulk ferroalloy reported consumption in 2004 was 0.9 Mt of manganese and silicon ferroalloys and 0.3 Mt of contained chromium in ferrochromium.

Postgraduate Scholarships in Materials Science and Engineering

The Department of Materials Engineering at Monash University, Melbourne, has an international reputation for research excellence in a wide range of areas including processing, properties and characterization of materials characterization including: nanomaterials, light metal alloys, polymers, ceramics, biomaterials, composites, nanocomposites, functional materials, corrosion, and mathematical and computer modeling of materials and properties. It has excellent research facilities and is a key member of a number of major Australian Research Centres. As of September 2009, many of these Centres, as well as individual academics, have full tax-free postgraduate PhD scholarships available for Australian or New Zealand citizens or people with Australian or New Zealand Permanent Resident status, most with an immediate start possible in the areas listed below.

1. Synthesis of Conducting Polymers for Use in Dye Sensitised Solar cells


2. New Biodegradable Biocomposites Based on Bacterial Cellulose (with CSIRO)


3. Dye sensitised solar cells on Flexible Polymer Substrates


4. Synthesis and properties of Light Responsive Photoplastic Crosslinked Polymers


5. Various projects on Polymer Processing, Blends, Composites and Thermosets (CRC for Polymers)


6. Corrosion Control of Mg Alloy stents


7. Creep in Mg Alloys


8. Durability, Corrosion and Deterioration Modeling of Pipelines (start in Jan, 2010)


9. Atomic structure of Nanostructured Materials using Advanced Microscopy ($5k/yr top up only, requires own scholarship)

You should have studied Science or Engineering, and should have at least Honours 1 or Honours 2A ranking, or equivalent, or a Masters degree. If you have any questions about these projects, please direct them to the Head of Department, Professor George Simon, george.simon@eng.monash.edu.au, phone: +61 3 9905 4936.

If you are interested in applying for these scholarships send a brief letter, resume and a copy of your Student Record to: Ms LeeAnn Hilborn, Department of Materials Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia, 3800 email: leeann.hilborn@eng.monash.edu.au, FAX: 03 9905 4934 as soon as possible. Please also nominate which of the above scholarships interest you.

Technical University of Catalonia Scholarship

MSc in Material Engineering Scholarships for non EU students are available, consisting of a monthly grant of 1600 € and an additional fixed amount of 5000 € per year.

The MSc in Material Engineering Scholarships are offered by a the consortium of Universities: Saarland University, National Polytechnic Institute of Lorraine, Technical University of Catalonia, Luleå University of Technology.

Admission Requirements

BSc. or equivalent in the field of materials science and engineering, physics, chemistry, or other engineering disciplines.

Deadline: 15 January each year.

E-mail: f.soldera@matsci.uni-sb.de

Hardness Measurement by Vicker Hardness testing Machine

This method of determining the hardness of a sample complete covers the procedure using Vicker hardness testing machine. This is a simple method and the complete procedure for performing this test is described below.

Experimental Work:

There were three samples in the experiment which were indicated by “Sample A”, “Sample B” and “Sample C”. Sample C was provided to me for hardness measurement. The apparatus required for this experiment is given below;

• Vicker Hardness Testing Machine


• Sand paper ( If sample surface is not clean)


• Sample

Procedure:

The procedure of the experiment was involved following steps;

• The sample C was provided me to perform the hardness test; the first job was to clean the surface of the sample by sand paper.


• After cleaning the surface of specimen the, the sample was placed upon the table.


• The load could be varied and selected from the screen on the vicker hardness tester.


• The specimen was then brought near to the diamond indenter.


• The microscope was turned out of the position while the indentation is being made.


• The load was then applied on the specimen.


• After producing indent the microscope was focused on the indent to study the indent.


• Proper magnification is important for accurate measurements.

Calculations:

Indenter used = Highly polished pointed square base pyramidal diamond with face angles of 136.

Load applied = 9.807N

Lens used = 4x

Time = 10 sec

L-1 (Horizental Diagonal) = 104.28µm

L-2 (Vertical Diagonal) = 96.90µm

HV = 183

HRC= 6.7

Vicker Hardness testing Machine

The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness. The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests.** The Vicker hardness testing machine in lab was made in Japan.

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1924 by Smith and Sandland. Following components used in Vicker hardness testing machine;

Indenter:

Highly polished pointed square base pyramidal diamond with face angles of 136 is used in this method.

Microscope:

A microscope in conjunction with the hardness tester is used to determine the size of indentation.

Table:

Sample is placed on the table for test.

Wheels:

Different wheels are used to focus the microscope and properly place the sample.

Hardness Measurement by Rockwell Hardness testing Machine

This method of determining the hardness of a sample complete covers the procedure and calculation using Rockwell hardness testing machine. This is a simple method and the complete procedure for performing this test is described below.

Introduction:

The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because they are so simple to perform and require no special skills. Several different scales may be utilized from possible combination of various indenters and different loads, which permits the testing of virtually all metals and alloys from the hardest to the softest.

Experimental Work:

There were three samples in the experiment which were indicated by “Sample A”, “Sample B” and “Sample C”. Sample C was provided to me for hardness measurement. The apparatus required for this experiment is given below;

• Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine


• Indenter


• Sand paper ( If sample surface is not clean)


• Sample

Procedure:

The procedure of the experiment was involved following steps;

• The sample C was provided me to perform the hardness test; the first job was to clean the surface of the sample by sand paper.


• After cleaning the surface of specimen the, the sample was placed upon anvil until the indenter touches the specimen.


• On further raising the anvil , the lever of the machine was raised the spindle of the dial and when the groove on the spindle was coincided with the beveled edge of the spindle housing, the minor load of 10Kg had been applied.


• The dial was then set to zero and the major load was applied.


• The dial reading was representing the depth of the indentation produced by the added load, and was taken out as the hardness of the specimen.

Calculations:

Indenter used = Diamond cone

Minor load = 10Kg

Major load = 150Kg

Scale = Black

HRC = = 82.25

HRA = = 39.25

Rockwell Hardness testing Machine

In Rockwell Hardness testing machine (RHN) based on an inverse relationship to the measurements of the additional depth to which an indenter is forced by a heavy (major) load beyond the depth resulting from a previously applied (minor) load. Following components used in Rockwell hardness testing machine;

Indenter:

1. 120 degree sphero-conicall diamond indenter is used for hard material.


2. Hardened steel ball indenter with diameter of 1/16, 1/8 1/4. 1/2 inch.

Dial Gauge:

On dial gauge there are two scales , one marked inred for hundred Kg and other black for 150Kg load.

Anvil:

On the anvil the specimen rests during the test operation.

Hardness Measurement by Brinell Hardness testing Machine

This method of determining the hardness of a sample complete covers the procedure and calculation using Brinell hardness tenting machine. As the brinell hardness testing is simple to do and results in this operation tell us about the operations and the properties of the test sample.

Introduction:

Hardness is the measure of resistance to indentation or plastic deformation. The quality of a product is dependent of the hardness. Many other properties of a material also depend upon the hardness e.g. tensile strength, strength, ***. In this experiment hardness was measured by the “Brinell hardness testing machine”.

Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The oldest of the hardness test methods in common use today

Experimental Work:

There were three samples in the experiment which were indicated by “Sample A”, “Sample B” and “Sample C”. Sample C was provided to me for hardness measurement. The apparatus required for this experiment is given below;

• Brinell Hardness Testing Machine


• Low Power Microscope


• Sand paper ( If sample surface is not clean)


• Sample

Procedure:

The procedure of the experiment was involved following steps;

• The sample C was provided me to perform the hardness test; the first job was to clean the surface of the sample by sand paper.


• After cleaning the surface of specimen the, the sample was placed upon the table and its height was adjusted using the wheel.


• Required amount of load “300Kg” was placed on the hanger.


• Pressure release liver is closed if it is already open.


• After perfect placement of the sample, the oil was pumped by using the handle.


• By the use of handle, the load was adjusted.


• The amount of applied load can be seen on the dial gauge.


• When our required load was applied on the sample, the loads started to float. Now here the application of pressure by the use on handle was stopped.


• After waiting for 15 seconds, the pressure was released by pressure release liver.


• An indent was produced on the sample.


• Another indent was also produced so that we can accurate our value by taking the average.


• Diameters of both indents on the sample were measured by the use of low power microscope.


• After measuring the diameter following mathematical calculations are performed.

Calculations:

Diameter of first indent = = 5.45mm

Diameter of second indent = = 5.55mm

Average Diameter = d = = = 5.5mm

Now Brinell hardness No (BHN) =

=

Where

F = the imposed load in kg

D = the diameter of the spherical indenter in mm

d= average diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm

Brinell Hardness No (BHN) =

=115.9

Brinell Hardness No (BHN) on the BHN Chart = 116

Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

Brinell hardness testing machine in our country are mostly was made in Japan. Company name of this tester is Shimadzu. Maximum Weight that can be applied by this tester is 3000Kg. Some important parts of the tester are given below;

Aneal:
This part of the machine is used for placing the sample in the correct position.
Pressure Releasing Liver:
This lever is used to release pressure on the sample.
Handle:
Handle is used to apply the load on the sample.
Hanger:
Hanger is used to place load. The required load can be applied by increasing or decreasing the weight pieces on the hanger. However the the weight of hanger without any weight piece was 500Kg.
Indenter:
A 10mm diameter hard steel indenter was used in this experiment. However we can also use tungsten carbide indenter or some other depending upon the nature of sample.
Wheel:
Wheel* nearly at bottom of Brinell hardness testing machine is used to adjust height of the table.
Table:
Table* is the smooth surface of the brinell hardness testing machine, where sample is placed.
Dial Gauge:
It* is used for taking the reading of applied load on the sample.

An Introduction to Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

This field of engineering consists of basically two parts, one is metallurgy and the other is materials. So their combination leads to a complete materials, including all matter of world, leads to metal working and metal usage.
In these two terms we will discuss each in detail;
The first part metallurgy can be defined as the art and the science of the metals. In its general, modern sense, metallurgy is the science that studies the chemical and physical properties of metals, including how they perform when used for culturally useful industrial purposes. The term often refers to the procedures used in extracting metals from ore, as well as to the processes related to metals purification and alloy production. It also refers to the craft of making culturally useful objects out of metal, or metalworking. The practice of metalworking has been carried out over thousands of centuries.

Now the second part materials, as it mostly related with the non metals, and it is mostly studied in the materials science. So, now the point is what is materials science? It investigates the relationship between the structure and properties of materials. Progress in the use of materials has marked the civilization of mankind, from the Stone Age and Iron Age to our age of semiconductors and polymers. Materials science applies the analytical tools of physics as well as insights from chemistry and engineering (and even mathematics and computation) to forge this link between structure and properties. This link can lead to the improvement of the properties of known materials such as steel or silicon, as well as new materials designed to meet new needs such as superconductors, smart materials, and nanostructural materials. This knowledge is useful whenever material properties impact performance.

DUBAL - The Dubai Aluminum Company

The Dubai Aluminium Company (DUBAL) is a state-owned manufacturer and supplier of primary alumina to the electronics and aerospace industries, foundry alloy to the automotive industry and extrusion billets for construction. The company serves more than 280 customers in 44 countries in the Far East, Europe, the Middle East and North America, as of the close of 2007.

One of the largest of its kind in the UAE in terms of land area, DUBAL covers 480 hectares (51.6 million square foot), employs 3,801 and comprises eight potlines that produce 890,000 metric tons of aluminum per year, as of 2007. The ISO-certified company also includes a power plant, a carbon plant, three cast-houses, a water desalination plant and storage facilities.

To meet increasing international demand for aluminum products, DUBAL?s strategy is to double its exports to Europe and the Mediterranean by 2012, increase its sales by 25% in the MENA region by 2009 and to establish a smelter or two per year. It has teamed up with powerhouses like Mubadala and others to carry out some of its objectives at home and abroad.

In February 2007, DUBAL and the Mubadala Development CompanyMubadala Development Company

jointly established Emirates Aluminium (EMAL), a green-field smelter in Abu Dhabi?s Khalifa Port and Industrial Zone. Estimated at a total value of AED29.4 billion (USD8 billion,) the smelter will be the largest of its kind in the world upon completion, with a capacity of 1.4 million tons of aluminum products per year. It will be built in two phases, the first of which will be completed in 2010 at a cost of AED18.4 billion (USD5 billion), with a production capacity of 700,000 tons per year.

Construction on a green-field aluminum smelter in King Abdullah Economic City in Saudi Arabia is expected to begin in the first quarter of 2009. The AED18.4 billion (USD5 billion) project is a joint venture between DUBAL, Mubadala, the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority (SAGIA) and Emaar. DUBAL and Mubadala's responsibilities will be fulfilled by EMAL International, which is owned equally by the two companies. When completed at the end of 2011, the proposed smelter will have a production capacity of 700,000 tons per year.

DUBAL will increase capacity to 920,000 tons per year by the end of 2008 and again to 2.5 million tons per year by 2015. The company also has plans to co-develop a AED11 billion (USD3 billion) refinery in Guinea, which is highly rich in bauxite reserves and will afford DUBAL long-term access to low-cost alumina.